Dehydration of Alcohols Essay Example for Free

Dehydration of Alcohols Essay Abstract The dehydration of cyclohexanol to cyclohexene can be done through fractional distillation. Once the fraction has been collected it must then be dried. The dried distillate is finally tested to determine whether or not it has been dehydrated. The three tests used were infrared spectroscopy, Bromine chemical test and Bayer’s chemical test. The infrared spectroscopy showed a large narrow peak at 3062. 12(cm-1) and 3020. 71(cm-1) which indicates that there is a double bond present. To assure the results were correct the chemical tests were done. The Bromine test was found to be positive for cyclohexene. The OH group was removed from the cyclohexanol and replaced with a double bond found around 3062. 12(cm-1) and 3020. 71(cm-1) and the dehydration was successful. Introduction Fractional distillation can be used when trying to dehydrate alcohols. Dehydrating an alcohol consists of taking away an OH group. Fractional distillation separates the initial compound into separate compounds; depending on what their boiling point is. Cyclohexanol can be dehydrated to form cyclohexene. Infrared spectroscopy is used to analyze a compound and can give a breakdown of what chemicals the original mixture is composed of. An example of this is the long broad peak around 3200 (cm-1) which signifies an OH group in the compound. This technique is very useful to help determine what a compound is made of and it can also be used with NMR to give a chemical structure. Since infrared spectroscopy can be used to analyze a compound it can also be used to verify that you have the correct compound. Another way to do this is to use a chemical test. There are multiple chemical tests that can be used, one of them being the bromine test. A bromine test is used to verify whether an OH group is present or not. Another test is used with KMNO4 to test whether and alkene is present or not. Using both chemical tests and infrared spectroscopy to analyze the substance it will be clear if fractional distillation and the drying agent were able to work together in the process of dehydrating the alcohol. Materials and Methods For this experiment, 5. 0-mL of cyclohexanol were weighed and placed in a 25-mL recovery flask. A magnetic stir bar was added to the flask. 2. 5-mL of 9 M sulfuric acid was added to the same flask and mixture was swirled. The fractional distillation apparatus was set up with steel wool in the column. A 10-mL receiving flask was placed in an ice-water bath. Fractional distillation was started making sure to maintain the head temperature between 80 and 85Â °C, making sure it did not go over 90Â °C. Heating was stopped once the mixture turned dark brown and a deep green condensate formed. Distillate was then collected and transferred to a 25-mL Erlenmeyer flask. Anhydrous potassium carbonate was added with a spatula to the 25-mL Erlenmeyer flask. Flask was swirled occasionally for about 15 min while adding more anhydrous potassium carbonate until liquid no longer looked cloudy. The mixture left that was not distilled was neutralized by adding bicarbonate to the solution, slowly, until foam stops forming. Dried liquid was then transferred with a Pasteur pipet into a 10-mL recovery flask containing a stir bar for simple distillation. Another 10-mL recovery flask was used as the receiver and a calcium chloride drying tube was connected with a vacuum adaptor. The more pure compound was collected by maintaining heat from 80 to 85Â °C, making sure it did not go over 90Â °C. Distillate was weighed and percent yield of cyclohexene was determined. An infrared spectroscopy was run on the distillate by taking a drop of distillate and putting it in between two salt plates. Closed the salt plates with metal holders and then put it into the infrared spectroscopy machine. First an infrared spectroscopy was run on the cyclohexanol. Then an infrared spectroscopy was run on the cyclohexene. The Bromine chemical test was run by adding 2 drops of distillate to a test tube. 0. 1 M of bromine in dichloromethane was added to the same test tube. Then added drops of dichloromethane until color appeared if color disappeared the test would have been positive. If the color did not go away the test would have been negative. Finally a Bayer test was run by adding 2-mL of 95% ethanol to a test tube. Two drops of distillate were added to the test tube. Then KMnO4 was added drop wise until color persisted. Results Table 1. Mass of starting solution, sulfuric acid, and ending product formed. Solution| Mass (g)| Cyclohexanol| 4. 512| Sulfuric Acid| 3. 384| Cyclohexene| 1. 217| Table 2. Chemical tests done to determine whether or not the product was cyclohexene. Result seen by changes in color. Type of Test| Color of Starting Reactant| Color of Reactant plus Product| Bromine| Bromine was red| Mixture went from red to clear | Baeyer| KMnO4 was purple| Mixture went from purple to dark brown | Table 3. Infrared spectroscopy peak values representing different structures found for cyclohexanol and cyclohexene. Solution| Alcohol| Single Bonds (sp3 C-H)| Double Bonds(sp2 C=C)| Ring Structure| Cyclohexanol| Peak 13339. 25 cm-1| Peak 2-32930. 94cm-1, 2854. 63cm-1| N/A| Peak 51450. 92cm-1| Cyclohexene| N/A| Peak 8 and 112923. 83cm-1, 2658. 55cm-1| Peak 6-73062. 12cm-1, 3020. 71cm-1| Peak 281438. 15cm-1| The original weight of the cyclohexanol added was 4. 512 g. The original weight of cyclohexanol with sulfuric acid was 7. 896 g. The original weight of the sulfuric acid alone was 3. 384 g. The weight for the product, assumed to be cyclohexene, was 1. 217 g. The percent yield for cyclohexene was calculated to be 26. 97%. Cyclohexanol was distilled fractionally to produce 4-mL of cyclohexene at 88? C. The original cyclohexanol was put through infrared spectroscopy and was found to have a large broad band at 3339. 25(cm-1) indicating the presence of an OH group, large narrow bands at 2930. 94(cm-1) and 2854. 63(cm-1) indicating single bonds between carbon and hydrogen, and a large narrow band at 1450. 92(cm-1) indicating a ring. The cyclohexene was put through infrared spectroscopy which showed that there was no OH group now. This time there was a double bond between carbons at 3062. 12(cm-1) and 3020. 71(cm-1), single bonds between hydrogen and carbon at 2923. 83(cm-1) and at 2658. 55(cm-1), and a ring at 1438. 15(cm-1). The bromine chemical test gave a positive result for cyclohexene after one drop of dichloromethane was added, which changed the liquid from a red color to a clear color. The Bayer test made the substance stay purple after 1 drop showing it was negative for an alkene. Doing the bromine chemical test and the Bayer test on cyclohexanol gave negative results for both. Discussion The fractional distillation was used to dehydrate cyclohexanol collected fraction allowed it to be separated and then was dried. Only 4-mL of cyclohexene was collected from the distillation. Infrared spectroscopy was then used to determine whether the substance retrieved from the distillation was dehydrated and had turned to cyclohexene. Looking at the infrared spectroscopy of the distilled substance there was no broad peak which signifies that there is not an OH in the substance anymore and the substance is not cyclohexanol anymore. To make sure the substance was cyclohexene two different chemical tests were given. The bromine test had a positive result after 1 drop. The Bayer test had a negative result after one drop was added. There was a discrepancy between the two tests but by viewing the IR we can conclude that the substance was no longer cyclohexanol. This could be attributed to error such as the cyclohexanol not being distilled correctly, leaving impurities. The fractions may have been heated too quickly and the fractions may have mixed. There may not have been enough drying agent added to the mixture. Some future possible changes to the experiment would be to have more time to not feel rushed. This way it would be easier to heat more slowly and make sure that everything is clean leaving little to no impurities.

Theory Of Child Development Children And Young People Essay

Theory Of Child Development Children And Young People Essay Urie Bronfenbrenner ecological system theory was created to focus on the quality and satisfaction of the childs environment. He believed that as a child grow and develop the way he/she interact with the environment becomes more complex. His theory was created to answer the question How does the environment helps or stops the development of a child? (Paquette, Ryan, 2001) The Urie Bronfenbrenner ecological system theory of child development has 5 systems that greatly impact the development of children. These systems consist of rules, norms and roles that is responsible for the shaping in childrens development. The names of these systems are microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem and chronosystem. (schoolworkhelper- St. Rosemary Educational Institution. Growth and Development Theory: URIE BRONFENBRENNER (1917-2005), n.d). Microsystem is define as the direct environment a child lives in, including the childs interaction with any immediate relationship or organisation. The immediate relationship will be family members, peer groups, neighbourhood and the immediate organisation will be school or day-care. The way that these groups, schools and organisation interact with the child will play a major role in the childs development. The more warming, comfortable, encouraging, and nurturing the relationship and organisation are the better the child will develop and grow. (Oswalt, 2008). Also the impact of the relationship occurs in two directions; away from the child and toward the child. An example will be a childs parent may affect his/her behaviour but the child can also affect the behaviour of the parents. Urie Bronfenbrenner refers to this mechanism as bi-directional influences. (schoolworkhelper- St. Rosemary Educational Institution. Growth and Development Theory: URIE BRONFENBRENNER (1917-2005), n.d). A n example of bi-directional influence will be A friendly, attentive child is likely to evoke positive and patient reactions from parents, whereas an irritable or distractible child is more likely to be a target of parental impatience, restriction and punishment. (Collins etal. 2000; Crockenberg Leekers, 2003a). Mesosystem is use to describes the different parts of the microsystem such as home, school, neighbourhood and day-care working together for the benefit of the child (Oswalt, 2008). The way a parent and a child will interact with each other at home is likely to affect the way that child interacts with the caregiver in child care settings and vice versa. (Brek, 2000 ). An example of mesosytem will be if a childs caregiver plays an active role in school, such as volunteering to be a part of activities, attend parent teacher meetings, year level meetings, class meetings and even watching the child play games like soccer, basketball, tennis etc will help ensure the growth and development of the child. (Oswalt, 2008). This is because a childs academic process does not only depend on what goes on in the classrooms but the involvement of the parents or caregiver (Epstein Sanders, 2002), and as long as the parents or caregiver show interest in what the child is doing then the child will be w illing to do and achieve more which will result in proper growth and development. Another way to show how the mesosystem works in shaping the development of a child is by family-neighbourhood connections. For example a child that has an economic disadvantage can benefit greatly from family-neighbourhood relationship. You see, rich families do not depend on their immediate surroundings for social support or education. Therefore they can afford to take their children to lessons and better quality schools in other communities. ( Elliott etal. 1996). Now a poor family will depend on their immediate surroundings for social support and education. After school programmes that offer child care to families and art, music, sports, scouting, dancing, singing etc to the child are linked to improve the performance in school in middle age childhood and psychological adjustment.( Posner vandell,1994; Vandell posner, 1999). Religious youth groups and special interest clubs like circle K that is p rovided by neighbourhood organisation will help the development in adolescence, by raising their self-esteem, enhancing their performance and achievement at school and giving them the knowledge on how to behave responsibly in society. (Gonzales etal., 1996; Kerestes Youniss,2003). Exosystem refers to the places and people that the child may not interact with regularly but plays an important role in the child growth and development. These places and people will be the parents workplace, the neighbourhood, extended family members etc. An example of exosystem will be if a childs parent is fired or laid off from work then the household will only have one set of income or no income at all. This will result in the parent not being able to pay rent, buy groceries or even send the child to school which will negatively impact the child development and growth (Oswalt, 2008). In fact research confirms the negative impact of a break down in exosystem show an increase rates of conflict and child abuse.( Emery Laumann-billings, 1998). However if that child parent receives a promotion or a raise at work, then the parent can provide a proper home, satisfy the child needs when the child is hungry and send he/she to school which will positively impact the child development (Os walt, 2008). Macrosystem consist of all systems mention above, the cultures, the general beliefs, written and unwritten principles that governs everyone on society behaviours. These principles can either be legal, political, economic, religious or educational (schoolworkhelper- St. Rosemary Educational Institution. Growth and Development Theory: URIE BRONFENBRENNER (1917-2005), n.d). The macrosystem can be defined as the effect of larger principles having a cascading influence throughout the interactions of all other layers (Paquette, Ryan, 2001). For example: If in a particular culture the belief is that parents should have full responsibility of raising their child, it is highly unlikely that the culture will provide any resources to assist the parent. As a result the structures at which the parent functions will be affected. The parent ability or inability to handle the responsibility toward their child within the childs microsystem is affected (Paquette, Ryan, 2001). Chronosystem is refered to by Urie Bronfenbrenner as the temporal dimension of his model. The environment is always changing. Important events that may occur throughout a childs life like birth of a sibling, going to school for the first time, parents being divorce are able to alter existing relationships between that child and the environment resulting in new conditions that can affect development. Also the timing of environmental change affects the impact. For example: A toodler having a brother or sister will experience different consequence than a schhol-age child with activities and relationships beyond the family. As a child gets older they have the ability to select, modify and create many of their own settings and experiences. This ability depends on the child physical, intellectual, personal characteristics and their environmental opportunities. Children are both products and producers of their environment therefore both the child and the environment form a network of interd ependent effects in ecological system theory (Brek, 2000). So far we have outline Urie Bronfenbrenner ecological systems theory of child development. Now we will discuss how this theory informs the socialization agents that influence growth and development. Before we get into the discussion we will first define what a socialization agent is. A socialization agent is people like parents, family members, peers, teachers, social institutions like school, community centers and religious institutions that assist with incorporating an individual with society. There are 4 major agents of socialization in society; family, school, community culture and peers. The other agents will be mass media, gender and work. All the agents mentioned above are further divided into socialization groups. The groups are primary agents, secondary agents and social class. Primary agents of socialization are made up of people that are very close to the individual like family, teachers and friends. The most important primary agent of socialisation will be the family because they help shape the life, development and behaviour of an individual with in the society. Secondary agents of socialization are institutions that assist the individual in finding their place within the society. Secondary socialization agents include religious instutions, schools, community centers, work places etc. Schools are responsible for improving a child social skill which helps him/ her incorporate well with the surrounding society. Social classes will be the lower class, working middle class and higher elite class. In other words social class is dividing an individual within the society (Baxamusa, 2011). Now there is a better understand of what socialization agents are we can discuss how Urie Bronfenbrenner theory informs them. However the focus will only be on the socialization agents that influence growth and development. There are family, educators, schools and community centres. Urie Bronfenbrenner ecological theory informed educators in how to handle and analysis situation that may occur in schools whether it is pre-school, primary or secondary school. For example: Akelia is sitting in an art class using markers to draw pictures. Henderson joins her at the table and begins to cut scrap paper with a scissors. Akelia place a piece of paper in the centre of the desk, now Henderson thought that it was scrap paper and begin to cut it in pieces. Akelia looks over to what Henderson is doing, when she realise the paper Henderson was cutting was the piece she place in the centre, she jump up and shouted NO!!!!!! That is moms!! while pulling the paper out of Henderson hands. Suddenly Akelia punch Henderson in the ribs before the teacher can arrive at the desk. In this scenario an educator that is informed by Urie Bronfenbrenner ecological theory will conclude that Akelias mesosystem is aggressive or forceful and the way Akelias family members, neighbours or parents i nteract with her is violent or hostile resulting in Akelia developing that way towards others. So instead of punishing Akelia the educator will talk to her parents about her behaviour towards other and try to come to an agreement on how to deal with the situation so Akelia can grow and develop in a more positive way. This approach will be better than punishment because if Akelia is punish it will only make her more hostil. This is because Akelia thinks that her behaviour is right because that is what she knows from home and that is how she developed. Therefore she will not understand the reason she is being punish and will exhibit very hostile behaviour towards the educator and nothing will be resolved. Also the educator informed by Urie Bronfenbrenner theory will reflect on her class room environment or school environment to make sure that Akelias microsystem is not interacting with her in any violent or hostile way to make her respond to the situation the way she did. If the mesos ystem interaction with Akelia is violent or hostile then the educator will go to higher authorities to talk on how the school is interacting with students and how it is impacting the growth and development of students in a negative way. Urie Bronfenbrenner ecological theory informed programmes that are put in place in schools and communities centers. For example:The school may have sports programmes, social worker programmes, donation programmes and guidance counsellors to work with students who microsystem and mesosystem is broken where the parents or family members, home and neighbourhood are very aggressive, forceful, hostile violent towards the child resulting in the child being emotional scared and growing and developing into a very angry person. When this occur the guidance counsellor of the school will interact with the child, place the child in afterschool programs like sports to help release tension and violent energy, the guidance counsellor may also alert social workers to interact with the parents and try to make better environment for the child so the child can have great growth and development. Also students who exosystem may be broken or breaking down. For instance the mother might lost her job or sal ary has been cut and the child may be not attending school for long periods of time because the parents do not have sufficient funds to send him. When the child does attend school he is in fights because of the broken exosystem the parents are constantly fighting and on the verge to getting a divorce. This then leads to the child undergoing a life changing event which hinders his growth and development because he do not want to socialize or be a part of school activities or school. The school will have a guidance counsellor interact with the child and be there through the stages the help the child cope with the life changing events without hindering the growth and development. Also students who are in a particular culture that believe that parents should take full responsibility for raising their child and no resources are given to the parent. If the parents do not have the ability to take on that responsibility because one parent is handicap and the other addicted to drugs then the school donation programme will be able to provide for the child so the broken macrosystem will not hinder the child growth or development or cause the child to grow and develop in a negative way. Urie Bronfenbrenner

Galactosemia Disorder: Causes, Forms and Treatments

Galactosemia Disorder: Causes, Forms and Treatments Abstract: Carbohydrates are vital for energy in all living organism and also in the biosynthesis of essential glycoconjugates. One of these carbohydrates is a monosaccharide called galactose which is broken-down in humans by the Leloir pathway of the galactose metabolism.[1] Within this pathway, there are three main enzymes that is responsible for modifying galactose in order to convert it into glycolysis for the production of energy – galactokinase (GALK1), galactose-1-phosohate uridyl transferase (GALT), and galactose-6-phosphate epimerase (GALE). A deficiency in any of these enzymes results in a disorder in the human called galactosemia. The second enzyme of this pathway, GALT which produces uridine diphosphogalactose (UPD-gal) from galactose-1-phosphate (gal-1P), a deficiency in this is the most severe of the three galactosemia disorders. GALK1 is rare and the symptoms are much milder than that of GALT with the rarest of the disorder being GALE. Galactosemia is established shortly a fter an infant starts feeding and even though a strict galactose-free diet is introduced promptly eliminating any acute symptoms, the long-term complications unfortunately has already taken place. While early detection can lead to relatively normal life, this inherited disorder is unable to break down simple sugar called galactose and with excessive buildup causes liver, brain, and eye damages. Introduction: All living organism make use of carbohydrates or sugars for the formation of cellular energy along with the synthesis of essential cellular glycoconjugates. In humans, we not only consume carbohydrates but we’re also able to synthesize altered carbohydrate monomers by means of reversible metabolic pathways. Galactose is typically in many of our dairy products that we consume as a carbohydrate monomer which is part of the disaccharide lactose. The human body is able to break down galactose using the Leloir pathway of galactose metabolism. This pathway consists of three enzymes, each structuring a different metabolic intermediate functioning together to accomplish one objective and that is to modify galactose into glucose in order to release it into glycolysis for the production of energy. The three enzymes are, Galactokinase (GALK1), galactose-1-phosohate uridyl transferase (GALT), and galactose-4-phosphate epimerase (GALE). An absence or mutations in any of these enzymes resul ts in a disorder in the human called galactosemia. The second enzyme of this pathway, GALT which produces uridine diphosphogalactose (UPD-gal) from galactose-1-phosphate (gal-1P), a deficiency in this enzyme is the most severe of the three galactosemia disorders. GALK1 is rare and the symptoms are much milder than that of GALT causing cataracts of the eye with the rarest of the disorder being GALE with acute symptoms as in GALT. UDP-gal in the Leloir’s pathway plays crucial role in synthesizing several essential glycoconjugates along with ultimately being used for energy production. GALT deficiency in humans’ results in a disorder called galactosemia, a potentially fatal disorder if left untreated immediately after birth. Galactose Metabolism (Leloir Pathway): Figure 1. Galactose Metabolism (Leloir Pathway) in the Liver. The galactose metabolic pathway, also known as Leloir pathway named after Luis Federico Leloir who revealed the principal mechanisms of galactose metabolism and defining the cause of galactosemia.[2] This is the only mechanism of galactose metabolism in humans which contains three enzymes, galactokinase (GALK1), galactose-1-phosphate uridyl transferase (GALT), and galactose-4-phosphate epimerase (GALE) which are responsible for their respective role in the Leloir pathway.[3] Upon entrance of the cell, galactose is first phosphorylated by GALK to yield galactose-1-phosphate, which is one of the two substrates of GALT. From here, GALT modifies it further to one uridine diphosphogalactose and one glucose-1-phosphate from one uridine diphosphoglucose and one galactose-1-phosphate. The expected product of GALT, UDP-gal, is the substance of GALE. As GALE epimerizes UDP-gal to produce UDP-glu, which is modified furthermore to enter glycolysis or be used as UDP-glu to synthesize necessary glycoconjugates in the cell.[4] [5] Further modification of UDP-glu consist of the loss of uridine monophosphate in order to produce glucose-1-phosphate. The mutase enzyme then yields glucose-6-phosphate, a glycolytic intermediate that moves into glycolysis to harvest energy in the form of ATP.[6] Since galactose is an essential component of many glycoconjugates, some UDP-gal is used for the synthesis of these sugar moieties which highlights the significance of GALT in the meta bolism and cellular consumption of galactose.[7] Galactosemia: Galactosemia is an autosomal recessive inborn error in the metabolism which affects how the body breakdown the sugar galactose with a rate of about 1 in 62,000 individuals.[8] As a result, those individuals with galactosemia has difficulty digesting this simple sugar that are often found in many foods which is primarily part of a larger sugar called lactose. Lactose produces one molecule each of the simple sugar glucose and galactose which is nearly found in all dairy products and baby formulas.[9] The disorder is typically diagnosed soon after birth, as infants are either breast-fed or formula-fed. However these newborn starts to express characteristic complications that tend to develop after the consumption of milk over a short period of time like nausea, vomiting, jaundice, and lethargy.[10] The accumulation of galactose is toxic to the body if not digested by the appropriate enzyme quickly causes serious health complications to the newborn. Treatments currently involves managemen t of galactose-free diet, although some drug tests in the disorder process have been proposed. Laboratory tests are available to confirm of the disease by measuring the enzyme activity of galactose-1-phosphate uridyl transferase or GALT which is the second step in the pathway of galactose metabolism.[11] There are 3 forms of this disorder: galactose-1-phosphate uridyl transferase (GALT), galactose kinase (GALK1), and galactose-4-phosphate epimerase (GALE) with each form having a relative differences in severity. Those individuals who expresses any of these disorders will have elevated levels of galactose in their blood along with high levels of galactose in the urine. For this reason, hospitals now carry out galactose tolerance tests which are now considered essential for the identification of the disease. Once confirmation of this disorder has been done, the newborn is treated using a dietary galactose restriction by replacing breast or milk base-formula with soy base-formula. Although most of the prominent features of this disease will improve such as nausea, diarrhea, cataracts, or enlarged liver and spleen will gradually regress once placed on the dietary restriction there is one chief symptom which does not show much improvement which is mental retardation due to the damage of the central nervous system.[12] It’s for this reason, that early diagnosis and prompt therapy are crucial. Cause of Disorder: Galactosemia means â€Å"galactose in the blood†, since these individuals are not able to break down galactose to produce energy, this sugar therefore builds up in their blood resulting in high levels of galactose-1-phosphate in the tissues. The pathway for galactose is more complex than most other simple sugars with three enzymes that are essential to convert a molecule of galactose into glucose-6-phosphate. Therefore, any type of genetic mutations in any part of the galactose pathway will cause severe life altering changes effecting organs and intellectual capacity if not treated right away. We can see from Fig. 1 that there are multiple steps in the breakdown of galactose into glucose-1-phosphate and be able to enter into glycolysis where it is broken down into glucose our main energy source. The GALK1 is the first enzyme in the galactose pathway and from this figure we can clearly see how by a mutation in GALK1 could cause so much chaos in the breakdown of galactose. The ability for our bodies to breakdown galactose into glucose plays a crucial for life. As a result, individuals with galactosemia, the GALT enzyme is either missing or not working properly and therefore unable to digest galactose into glucose causing large buildups in the blood. Overtime, this buildup if remain untreated will develop into fatality and although certain damages are able to regress a few of the many will not be irreversible. Forms of Disorder: There are several forms of galactosemia which are caused by mutations of a specific gene affecting different enzymes that are involved in the process of breaking down galactose. The classic galactosemia or galactose-1-phosphate uridyl transferase (GALT) is also known as galactosemia type I, is the most common and severe form of this disorder. Classical galactosemia affects 1 out of 60,000 newborns. In the classic galactosemia, infants are born without the GALT enzyme and are either fed breast-milk or milk-base formulas. In newborns nearly 90% of their carbohydrates comes from lactose, human breast milk comprises of nearly 6% to 8% lactose and most infant formulas comprises of 7% lactose.[13] Therefore all these milk-based products are immediately substituted with lactose free formulas such as soy-based formulas to lessen any further damage to the newborn. Fortunately, most cases of classic galactosemia are detected early enough by newborn screenings and a galactose-free diet is quickly put in place. Within galactosemia type I, there is a rare type of galactosemia called â€Å"Duarte variant†, it is often but not always detected during newborn screening since this is a milder form requiring less treatment or in most cases, no treatment but an erythrocyte GALT enzyme activity test may be performed to confirm this variant form of the disease. Galactokinase deficiency (GALK1) is also known as galactosemia type II which is rare genetic causing cataract damage due to a lack of galactokinase.[14] Galactosemia type II affects fewer than 1 out of 100,000 newborns. GALK1, is responsible for one step in the galactose metabolic pathway that converts galactose to galactose-1-phosphate which is then converted to glucose. A mutation in this gene results in galactose and an associated sugar called galactitol to buildup in the cells that constructs the lens of the eye.[15] With high level of these accumulations in the blood will damage the lens which will cause cataract and lead to blurred vision – a characteristic in galactosemia type II. Galactose-4-phosphate epimerase deficiency (GALE) is also known as galactosemia type III and the rarest of the three forms of galactosemia. Those who have this may have mild to severe symptoms which may include cataracts, delayed growth and development, along with liver disease, and liver problems. There has not been many reported with the GALE mutations as this is the fewest of the galactosemia disorders. GALE, is an enzyme that instructs the production of an enzyme called UPD-galactose-4-epimerase and responsible for converting UDP-galactose to UDP-glucose. Since GALE is the rarest of the disorder, those affected with galactosemia type III may or may not have any of the complications characteristically related to galactosemia and often do not require treatment. In general, those who have this disorder whose had high level of these enzymes in the blood will still lead to complications such as damaged tissues or organs, cataract, to intellectual disabilities and damages to the liver, kidneys and brain.[16] Newborn Screening: With the high rate of associated with untreated individuals, newborn screening for galactosemia and other inherited genetic disorders are available in all of the 50 states and provinces of the United States. To screen for galactosemia, infant blood and urine samples are screened for the presence of GALT and any galactose metabolites.[17] The samples are first tested for the concentration of galactose and GALT activity, and if galactose levels are high and/or GALT activity is low, then the samples are then assayed for galactose-1-phosphate and further tested of the more common DNA mutations associated with galactosemia.[18] . GALT enzyme presence of less than 32  µmol/L (normal 150-500  µmol/L) is usually indicative of GALT-deficient galactosemia.[19] Newborn screening is essential in early detection and treatment of galactosemia patients efficiently. It is vital to their physical and mental health to avoid as much damage to the individual as possible. Studies has shown that approximately 80% of children given newborn screening for galactosemia were diagnosed within 2 weeks of age, compared to approximately 35% of whom were not screened. From those whom were screened 20% were free of GALT deficiency symptoms at the time of diagnosis.[20] Although nutritional therapy is frequently used which gradually improves the symptoms in patients with galactosemia disorders by introducing these individuals to a galactose-free diet.[21] In most cases, as long as the disease has not advanced too much, most of all acute symptoms gradually regress and often times completely disappear with dietary restriction alone. Many newborns will show rapid weight gain along with no more nauseating or vomiting. The organs like the liver and spleen that would be enlarged due to excess galactose in the body also returns to normal size along with cataracts, if present, will start to regress and most of the time will disappear completely.[22] Unfortunately, there is one significant symptom that shows no signs of improvement – mental retardation or intellectual disability like speech defects and other neurological or physiological abnormalities.[23] Since newborn screening is not performed until at least 24 hours after an infant has begun feedi ng, galactosemia infants will consume galactose before being diagnosis. A more efficient and timely screening methods are necessary to decrease the cases of infants who are already exhibiting disease symptoms at the time of diagnosis. Diet: The most common and most effective form of treatment so far for galactosemia is dietary restriction of galactose consumption. By having galactosemia patient avoid lactose or ingesting food containing galactose they are able to minimize any further damage to their body. For infants, it’s particularly imperative as lactose is present in all milk-base products and studies has now shown that there are some free-galactose in some fruits and vegetables. A study by Gross and Acosta in 1991 indicated monomeric galactose contents in approximately 45 different fruits and vegetables. For example, artichoke, mushrooms, olives, and peanuts all contained less than 0.1 mg of free galactose per 100 mg of plant tissue. In persimmon and tomato contained approximately 34.5 mg of free galactose per 100 g of plant tissue. Fruits and vegetables like dates, papaya, bell pepper, and watermelon were found to have upwards of 10 mg of free galactose per 100 g of plant tissues.[24] Conclusion: Although uncommon due to the effective newborn screening, undiagnosed galactosemia can lead to liver cirrhosis, mental retardation, and even death. [25] Girls with galactosemia have been found in later years to have higher rates of ovarian failure even with dietary intake. It’s important to understand that with acute symptoms at birth can managed with diet but the long-term affect involving impaired sexual and mental function are still prevalent among galactosemia individuals. References: Antshel, K. M., Epstein, I. O., Waisbren, S. E. (2004). Cognitive strengths and weaknesses in children and adolescents homozygous for the galactosemia Q188R mutation: a descriptive study. Neuropsychology, 18(4), 658-664. Hardin, J., Bertoni, G., Kleinsmith, L.J., (2012) Becker’s World of the Cell, 8th Ed, International Edition. Pearson Education, Inc. Glenview. pp. 242 Isselbacher, K.J. (1957), Clinical and Biochemical Observations in Galactosemia. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. Vol. 5, No. 5, pp. 527-532. Grossiord, B. P., Luesink, E. J., Vaughan, E. E., Arnaud, A., de Vos, W. M. (2003). Characterization, Expression, and Mutation of the Lactococcus lactis galPMKTE Genes, Involved in Galactose Utilization via the Leloir Pathway. Journal of Bacteriology. Vol. 185, No. 3, pp. 870-878. Kalckar, H. M., Kurahashi, K., Jordan, E. (1959). â€Å"Hereditary Defects in Galactose Metabolism in Escherichia Coli Mutants, I. Determination of Enzyme Activities†. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, Vol. 45, No. 12, pp. 1776-1786. Asada, M., Okano, Y., Imamura, T., Suyama, I., Hase, Y., Isshiki, G., (1999). Molecular characterization of galactokinase deficiency in Japanese patients. Journal of Human Genetics. Vol. 44: 377-382. Lai, K., Langley, S. D., Khwaja, F. W., Schmitt, E. W., Elsas, L. J. (2003). GALT Deficiency Causes UDP-Hexose Deficit in Human Galactosemic Cells. Glycobiology. Vol. 13, No. 4, pp. 285-294. Berry, G.T., Classic Galactosemia and Clinical Variant Galactosemia. 2000 Feb 4 [Updated 2014 Apr 3]. GeneReviews ® [Internet]. Seattle (WA): University of Washington, Seattle; 1993-2014.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK1518/ Ai, Y., Zheng, Z., O’Brien-Jenkins, A., Bernard, D.J., Wynshaw-Boris, T., Ning, C., Reynolds, R., Segal, S., Huang, K., and Dwight Stambolian. (2000), A Mouse Model of Galactose-Induced Cataracts. Human Molecular Genetics. Vol. 9, No. 12, pp. 1821-1827. Fridovich-Keil, J.,Bean, L., He, M., andRichard Schroer., Epimerase Deficiency Galactosemia. 2011 Jan 25 [Updated 2013 Oct 24]. GeneReviews ® [Internet]. Seattle (WA): University of Washington, Seattle; 1993-2014.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK51671/ Freer, D. E., Ficicioglu, C., Finegold, D. (2010). Newborn Screening for Galactosemia: A Review of 5 Years of Data and Audit of a Revised Reporting Approach. Clinical Chemistry, Vol. 56, No. 3, pp. 437-444. Waggoner, D. D., Buist, N. R., Donnell, G. N. (1990). Long-term Prognosis in Galactosaemia: Results of a Survey of 350 Cases. Journal of Inherited Metabolism Disorder., Vol. 13, No. 6, pp.802-818. Gross, K. C., Acosta, P. B. (1991). Fruits and Vegetables are a Source of Galactose: Implications in Planning the Diets of Patients with Galactosemia. Journal of Inherited Metabolism Disorder, Vol. 14, No.2 253-258. ~ 1 ~ [1] Kurt J. Isselbacher, â€Å"Clinical and Biochemical Observations in Galactosemia.† The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 5 (September-October 1957): 527-532. [2] Benoit P. Groissard et al., â€Å"Characterization, Expression, and Mutation of the Lactococcus lactis galPMKTE Genes, Involved in Galactose Utilization via the Lenoir Pathway.† Journal of Bacteriology 185 (February 2003): 870-878. [3] Herman M. Kalckar et al., â€Å"Hereditary Defects in Galactose Metabolism in Escherichia Coli Mutants, I. Determination of Enzyme Activities.† Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the U.S.A. 45 (December 1959): 1776-1786. [4] Groissard, 870-878. [5] Kalckar, 1776-1786. [6] Groissard, 870-878 [7] K. Lai et al., â€Å"GALT Deficiency Causes UDP-hexose Deficit in Human Galactosemic Cells.† Glycobiology 13 (January 2003): 285-294. [8] Boris B.T. Wang et al., â€Å"Molecular and Biochemical Basis of Galactosemia.† Molecular Genetics and Metabolism 63 (1998): 263-269. [9] Jeff Hardin et al., Becker’s World of the Cell (Glenview: Pearson Education Inc., 2012), 242002E [10] Isselbacher, 527. [11] Wang, 263. [12] Isselbacher, 528. [13] Gerard T. Berry, MD., â€Å"Classic Galactosemia and Clinical Variant Galactosemia.† GeneReviews ® [Internet] – NCBI Bookshelf (1993-2014). [14] Minoru Asada et al., â€Å"Molecular Characterization of Galactokinase Deficiency in Japanese Patients.† Journal of Human Genetics 44 (1999): 377-382. [15] Yunjun Ai et al., â€Å"A Mouse Model of Galactose-Induced Cataracts.† Human Molecular Genetics 9 (2000): 1821-1827. [16] Judith Fridovich-Keil, PhD et al., â€Å"Epimerase Deficiency Galactosemia.† GeneReviews ® NCBI Bookshelf (2011-2013). [17] Dennis E. Freer, Can Ficicioglu, and David Finegold., â€Å"Newborn Screening for Galactosemia: A Review of 5 Years of Data and Audit of A Revised Reporting Approach.† Clinical Chemistry 56 (March 2010): 437-444. [18] Freer et al., 437-444. [19] Freer et al., 437-444. [20] D.D. Waggoner, N.R M. Buist, and G.N. Donnell., â€Å"Long-term Prognosis in Galactosemia: Results of A Survey of 350 Cases† Journal of Inherited Metabolic Diseaase 13 (November 1990): 802-818. [21] Isselbacher, 528. [22] Isselbacher, 528. [23] Wang, 263. [24] K.C. Gross and P.B. Acosta., â€Å"Fruits and Vegetables Are A Source of Galactose: Implications in Planning the Diets of Patients with Galactosemia.† Journal of Inherited Metabolic Disease 14 (1991): 253-258. [25] Kevin M. Antshel et al., â€Å"Cognitive Strengths and Weaknesses in Children and Adolescents Homozygous for the Galactosemia Q188R Mutation: A Descriptive Study.† Neuropsychology 18 (October 2004): 658-664.

The Perfect Motorcycle Essay -- Personal Narratives Automobiles Mechan

The Perfect Motorcycle As long as I can remember, I have always been interested in cars, trucks, and other gear-head type stuff. I think I have liked automotive things because my dad is very mechanical and has taught my brother and I more about cars than we really need to know. Luckily in the past few years I have also taken an interest in motorcycles. This began shortly before my sixteenth birthday when I found out that my brother had secretly acquired one and was keeping it at a friends house. As the story goes, my brother Mike noticed an old rusty bike leaning against a shed in someones yard when he was driving around with one of his friends in our truck. Mike asked the man who lived there if he would be willing to part with the motorcycle, and eventually it ended up at our house. That bike was certainly nothing special to look at and when I first saw it, it really wasnt anywhere near running condition. Through much of my brothers perseverance, and a whole bunch of luck, the bike began to runfirst on one cylinder, then on both. I remember when Mike first got it running my dad and I looked on as he took the first ride around the yard; Im not sure if Mike knew it ahead of time or not, but the bike didnt have a functioning clutch. We soon discovered that rolling the motorcycle down a hill and then dropping it into gear wasnt too violent and was certainly good enough for the time being. Soon after, my dad and I were both allowed to ride; I think we both realized that if Mikes bike had been such a success on such little money (free, plus a few necessary parts) there were motorcycles in both of our futures. About a month later, my dad bought another old Honda in beautiful condition, and about a month after that I bought a ... ... model for under $2000 online. I think that with some luck, I could find a CX500TC for about the same price. Unfortunately, the Turbo bikes are much more rare, and even if not more valuable, they are simply harder to find. I recall that shortly after I purchased my bike, I found a CX500TC for sale in Milwaukee (only about 1.5 hours from where I live) for $1500 at a dealership. I was almost having second thoughts about having just purchased a motorcycle, but I think I made the right decision at that time because I am very happy with my bike and I still enjoy every chance I have to ride it. The next time I am in the market shopping for a motorcycle, I will be sure to see if there are any Honda Turbos available for me to consider. Works Cited Honda CX & GL500 Bulletin Board http://cx500.gobinet.se Honda Milestone Models http://www.hondamotorcycles.com

Capital Punishment Essay -- Justice Law Government Morals Ethics Essay

Capital Punishment Should we kill killers is the question to answer regarding the controversial subject of capital punishment. There is strong support for both sides and many people have offered their opinions in writing for all of us to examine. John M. Olin, the Professor of Jurisprudence and Public Policy at Fordham University, gave us his Pro-Capital Punishment opinion in the Harvard Law Review in 1986. Although his article was written more than a decade ago the argued topics have not changed. In his work The Ultimate Punishment: A Defense Mr. Olin addresses why he feels capital punishment is necessary in our society and across the world. According to Olin retribution is the number one reason for capital punishment. He goes on to say that the retributive notion of punishment in general is that as a foundational matter of justice, criminals deserve punishment and punishment should be equal to the harm done. What counts as â€Å"punishment equal to harm†? Olin refers to lex talionis commonly known as â€Å"an eye for an eye†. This idea was drawn from the Babylonian Law of Hammurabi from the 18th century. It states: If a builder builds a house for someone, and does not construct it properly, and the house which he built falls in and kills its owner, then that builder shall be put to death. If it kills the son of the owner, then the son of that builder shall be put to death. Besides being totally absurd there are a couple of points to make. First, retribu tion cannot be uniformly applied to every harm committed. What about rapist? Should they be raped? What about those who commit mass murder? How can we make their punishment proportional? The answer is we can not. Killing one person who killed another serves no practical... ...ntly, especially if death is involved, then we need to stop, back up and say â€Å"what is going on here?† Criminals no doubt deserve to be punished, and punished with severity appropriate to the harm they have caused to the innocent. But severity of punishment has its limits, both by justice and basic human dignity. Too many studies have shown that a lengthy sentence of 20 to 30 years of a murderer has been proven to be sufficient. After this period of time most individuals have proven to be constructive, worthy members of society and have lived prosperous lives after being released. I do however; recognize the fact that many individuals should stay in prison for the rest of their lives for the safety of all as well as retribution. For a Nation that is supposed to be founded on Christian morals and beliefs I have to wonder how they justify much of what they do.

Funding for Emergency Operations

Funding for Emergency Operations Jenalyn L. Brock EMC/330 March 19, 2013 Robert E. Wynne Funding for Emergency Operations Government funding for emergency medical services (EMS) operations and training comes from many different resources. Government also oversees contract options for funding Medicaid, Medicare, insurance, and private providers. The Taylor Ambulance Company in the University of Phoenix scenario has its own contract with the City of Kelsey. This contract should meet some meet some general contract principles. Emergency managers need to understand the effect that legislation has on funding and operations.Government Options for Funding EMS operations and training receive funding from the public and fee-for-service reimbursement (Brennan, 2006, p. 93). How an EMS organization is configured determines how the EMS services are funded. Traditionally, private EMS providers rely on fee-for-service funding, while public service providers rely on public funding. According to Bre nnan (2006), both providers are billing for services and private EMS companies are more and more dependent on public funding. In 1966, the National Highway Safety Act created a grant program that provided funding for equipment and personnel.In order to receive money for grants, EMS organizations have to write grant proposals to the government. In the grant proposals, managers have to explain exactly how the funds will be used, who will benefit from the funds, and prove that they will not abuse the funds (FEMA, 2012). Local organizations also see revenue from funding alternatives such as taxes, user fees, fines, forfeitures, citations, enterprise funds, utility rates, sales of organizational assets, benefit assessments, and borrowing revenue (FEMA, 2012). These funding alternatives are acquired through government processes.In 1973, Congress passed the Emergency Medical Systems Act that provided further guidance and funding for EMS systems (Brennan, 2006, p. 94). Private EMS organizat ions like American Medical Response and Rural/Metro Corporation are mostly supported by user fees, unless they are patients covered by Medicare or Medicaid. Each of these government funding choices has its own implications and comes with restraints, as in restricting the way the money is used. Contract Options for Funding EMS organizations also have their contract options for funding.According to the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (2013), they developed a fee schedule for ambulance services, in order to contain costs. This schedule is written into a contract. Many patients that are transported by ambulance are Medicare beneficiaries. The government will only reimburse the companies for services rendered during transport, unless contraindicated by the patient’s medical condition. There are codes associated with treatment that either replace or supplement ICD-9 codes. The fee schedule also corresponds with BLS and ALS levels of care, rating treatment from routine to complex (Brennan, 2012).Private insurance companies like Blue Cross Blue Shield include ambulance services for their patients when other transportation would otherwise harm the patient. Cities and hospitals create contract agreements with private ambulance companies for services. Taylor Ambulance Company Service Contracts Generally in contract writing, there are six basic contract elements (The Law Handbook, 2010). The first is that both parties must have the capacity to enter a contract. There must be an offer and then acceptance. There needs to be intention to create legal relations. Considerations are made regarding as far as the value of what is being exchanged.There is also consideration for what will happen if the other party fails to follow through with their portion of the contract. The considerations must not be illegal in nature, or the contract is not valid. The Taylor Ambulance Company has a General Services Agreement with the City of Kelsey. The two parties are capable of entering the contract. The contract clearly states that both parties agree that Taylor Ambulance Services will provide emergency transport for the city, through 911-dispatch. The contract also clearly states that Taylor Ambulance Company will provide appropriately trained personnel and its own equipment.The contract also delineates how many ambulances will be running, staffed, and stocked during the contract. It also identifies Taylor Ambulance Company as the primary provider of emergency transport services for the City of Kelsey. The ambulances must be in good working order and staff must be trained according to all applicable laws. The contract states exactly how much Taylor Ambulance Company will be paid for each patient that it transports. The total of $829. 40 will be the price. For the rest of the costs associated with the transport, like medical supplies, blankets, and other equipment, must be provided by Taylor Ambulance Company.At the end of each month, Taylor Ambulance Company must total the ambulance transports. The City of Kelsey will send them an accounting report and Taylor Ambulance Company must approve the statement. If both parties still disagree, they will seek further counsel. These elements of the contract cover the consideration elements of a contract. The contract has an exact start and stop time, and is signed by the Mayor of the City of Kelsey and the Owner of Taylor Ambulance Company. Effect of Legislation on Funding and Operations Federal and local legislation can have significant effects on funding and operations.Depending on the type of organization, it could be dependent on Federal funding. Mercer (2013) reported that the South Dakota state Senate rejected an attempt to change financial agreements between insurance companies and ambulance services. A Senator wanted to allow ambulance services to be paid directly by insurance providers, as opposed to sending checks to patients. There are times when the ambulance companies were n ot receiving payments. The interruption in the payment cycle can have a direct effect on the company’s funding and operations. On a Federal level, financial stability can have a great overall impact on ambulance companies.Fortunately, in January 2013, President Obama signed the National Defense Authorization Act. It reauthorized the Fire and SAFER grant programs and called to reform the Public Safety Officers Benefits Program. The act also extends Medicare bonus payments for ambulance services. Ambulance companies will receive an extra two percent for urban transports, three percent for rural transports, and 22. 6% for super-rural transports (Fire Chief, 2013). Conclusion Government funding for EMS operations and training comes from several different resources. Ambulance companies rely on both public and private funding.Government also oversees contract options for Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Service providers like Medicaid and Medicare. Insurance companies and private providers also adhere to contracts. The Taylor Ambulance Company in the University of Phoenix scenario has its own contract with the City of Kelsey. This contract meets the general contract principles and clearly outlines the terms of the deal between Taylor Ambulance Company and the City of Kelsey. Emergency managers who understand legislation and how it effects funding will be able to anticipate changes and effectively manage their organizations. References Brennan, J.A. (2006). Principles of EMS systems. (3rd ed. ). Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. (2013). Financial alignment initiatives. Retrieved from http://www. cms. gov/Medicare-Medicaid-Coordination/Medicare-and-Medicaid- Coordination/Medicare-Medicaid-CoordinationOffice/ FinancialModelstoSupportStatesEffortsinCareCoordination. html FEMA. (2012). Funding alternatives for emergency medical and fire services. Retrieved from http://www. usfa. fema. gov/downloads/pdf/publications/fa_331 . pdf Fire Chief. (2013). Obama signs bills to re-fund USFA, FIRE grants, extend Medicare ambulance payments.Retrieved from http://firechief. com/legislation-amp regulations/obama-signs-bills-re-fund-usfa-fire-grants-extend-medicare-ambulance-pa Mercer. (2013). Rapid City Journal. Senate blocks changes to ambulance service payments. Retrieved from http://rapidcityjournal. com/news/senate-blocks-changes-to-ambulance-service-payments/article_880d2ee4-ef1f-54dd-a98a-0c6e81ef95e7. html National Highway Transportation and Safety Administration. (1996). Emergency medical services agenda for the future. Retrieved from http://www. nremt. org/nremt/ downloads/EMS%20Agenda%20for%20the%20Future. pdf Funding for Emergency Operations Funding for Emergency Operations Jenalyn L. Brock EMC/330 March 19, 2013 Robert E. Wynne Funding for Emergency Operations Government funding for emergency medical services (EMS) operations and training comes from many different resources. Government also oversees contract options for funding Medicaid, Medicare, insurance, and private providers. The Taylor Ambulance Company in the University of Phoenix scenario has its own contract with the City of Kelsey. This contract should meet some meet some general contract principles. Emergency managers need to understand the effect that legislation has on funding and operations.Government Options for Funding EMS operations and training receive funding from the public and fee-for-service reimbursement (Brennan, 2006, p. 93). How an EMS organization is configured determines how the EMS services are funded. Traditionally, private EMS providers rely on fee-for-service funding, while public service providers rely on public funding. According to Bre nnan (2006), both providers are billing for services and private EMS companies are more and more dependent on public funding. In 1966, the National Highway Safety Act created a grant program that provided funding for equipment and personnel.In order to receive money for grants, EMS organizations have to write grant proposals to the government. In the grant proposals, managers have to explain exactly how the funds will be used, who will benefit from the funds, and prove that they will not abuse the funds (FEMA, 2012). Local organizations also see revenue from funding alternatives such as taxes, user fees, fines, forfeitures, citations, enterprise funds, utility rates, sales of organizational assets, benefit assessments, and borrowing revenue (FEMA, 2012). These funding alternatives are acquired through government processes.In 1973, Congress passed the Emergency Medical Systems Act that provided further guidance and funding for EMS systems (Brennan, 2006, p. 94). Private EMS organizat ions like American Medical Response and Rural/Metro Corporation are mostly supported by user fees, unless they are patients covered by Medicare or Medicaid. Each of these government funding choices has its own implications and comes with restraints, as in restricting the way the money is used. Contract Options for Funding EMS organizations also have their contract options for funding.According to the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (2013), they developed a fee schedule for ambulance services, in order to contain costs. This schedule is written into a contract. Many patients that are transported by ambulance are Medicare beneficiaries. The government will only reimburse the companies for services rendered during transport, unless contraindicated by the patient’s medical condition. There are codes associated with treatment that either replace or supplement ICD-9 codes. The fee schedule also corresponds with BLS and ALS levels of care, rating treatment from routine to complex (Brennan, 2012).Private insurance companies like Blue Cross Blue Shield include ambulance services for their patients when other transportation would otherwise harm the patient. Cities and hospitals create contract agreements with private ambulance companies for services. Taylor Ambulance Company Service Contracts Generally in contract writing, there are six basic contract elements (The Law Handbook, 2010). The first is that both parties must have the capacity to enter a contract. There must be an offer and then acceptance. There needs to be intention to create legal relations. Considerations are made regarding as far as the value of what is being exchanged.There is also consideration for what will happen if the other party fails to follow through with their portion of the contract. The considerations must not be illegal in nature, or the contract is not valid. The Taylor Ambulance Company has a General Services Agreement with the City of Kelsey. The two parties are capable of entering the contract. The contract clearly states that both parties agree that Taylor Ambulance Services will provide emergency transport for the city, through 911-dispatch. The contract also clearly states that Taylor Ambulance Company will provide appropriately trained personnel and its own equipment.The contract also delineates how many ambulances will be running, staffed, and stocked during the contract. It also identifies Taylor Ambulance Company as the primary provider of emergency transport services for the City of Kelsey. The ambulances must be in good working order and staff must be trained according to all applicable laws. The contract states exactly how much Taylor Ambulance Company will be paid for each patient that it transports. The total of $829. 40 will be the price. For the rest of the costs associated with the transport, like medical supplies, blankets, and other equipment, must be provided by Taylor Ambulance Company.At the end of each month, Taylor Ambulance Company must total the ambulance transports. The City of Kelsey will send them an accounting report and Taylor Ambulance Company must approve the statement. If both parties still disagree, they will seek further counsel. These elements of the contract cover the consideration elements of a contract. The contract has an exact start and stop time, and is signed by the Mayor of the City of Kelsey and the Owner of Taylor Ambulance Company. Effect of Legislation on Funding and Operations Federal and local legislation can have significant effects on funding and operations.Depending on the type of organization, it could be dependent on Federal funding. Mercer (2013) reported that the South Dakota state Senate rejected an attempt to change financial agreements between insurance companies and ambulance services. A Senator wanted to allow ambulance services to be paid directly by insurance providers, as opposed to sending checks to patients. There are times when the ambulance companies were n ot receiving payments. The interruption in the payment cycle can have a direct effect on the company’s funding and operations. On a Federal level, financial stability can have a great overall impact on ambulance companies.Fortunately, in January 2013, President Obama signed the National Defense Authorization Act. It reauthorized the Fire and SAFER grant programs and called to reform the Public Safety Officers Benefits Program. The act also extends Medicare bonus payments for ambulance services. Ambulance companies will receive an extra two percent for urban transports, three percent for rural transports, and 22. 6% for super-rural transports (Fire Chief, 2013). Conclusion Government funding for EMS operations and training comes from several different resources. Ambulance companies rely on both public and private funding.Government also oversees contract options for Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Service providers like Medicaid and Medicare. Insurance companies and private providers also adhere to contracts. The Taylor Ambulance Company in the University of Phoenix scenario has its own contract with the City of Kelsey. This contract meets the general contract principles and clearly outlines the terms of the deal between Taylor Ambulance Company and the City of Kelsey. Emergency managers who understand legislation and how it effects funding will be able to anticipate changes and effectively manage their organizations. References Brennan, J.A. (2006). Principles of EMS systems. (3rd ed. ). Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. (2013). Financial alignment initiatives. Retrieved from http://www. cms. gov/Medicare-Medicaid-Coordination/Medicare-and-Medicaid- Coordination/Medicare-Medicaid-CoordinationOffice/ FinancialModelstoSupportStatesEffortsinCareCoordination. html FEMA. (2012). Funding alternatives for emergency medical and fire services. Retrieved from http://www. usfa. fema. gov/downloads/pdf/publications/fa_331 . pdf Fire Chief. (2013). Obama signs bills to re-fund USFA, FIRE grants, extend Medicare ambulance payments.Retrieved from http://firechief. com/legislation-amp regulations/obama-signs-bills-re-fund-usfa-fire-grants-extend-medicare-ambulance-pa Mercer. (2013). Rapid City Journal. Senate blocks changes to ambulance service payments. Retrieved from http://rapidcityjournal. com/news/senate-blocks-changes-to-ambulance-service-payments/article_880d2ee4-ef1f-54dd-a98a-0c6e81ef95e7. html National Highway Transportation and Safety Administration. (1996). Emergency medical services agenda for the future. Retrieved from http://www. nremt. org/nremt/ downloads/EMS%20Agenda%20for%20the%20Future. pdf

Frederick Douglass: Slave Life and His Constitution Views Essay

Throughout reading â€Å"Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass†, one does not simply learn and discover the everyday average slave life style, Douglass incorporates his own mental philosophies as to how slavery and society is ran during that time by telling it from his own first person prospective, and he also uncovers the evils that slavery hides. Slaves during the antebellum of the Civil War had faced not only many physical threats by their slaveholder or master, but mental dangers as well. Douglass’s Narrative demonstrates the double purpose of the work as both a personal account and a public argument. Douglass introduces the reader to his own circumstances by telling his birthplace and the fact that he does not know his own age. He then generalizes from his own experience, explaining that almost no slaves know their true ages. Next, Douglass takes this detail of his experience and analyzes it. He points out that slave owners purposely keep their slaves ignorant, and that this is a tactic whites use to gain power over slaves. This is the structure Douglass uses in his Narrative. He presents his personal experience as a typical slave experience, and then usually makes a point about the experience and what it tells us about how slavery works and why it is wrong. Douglass intends to use the Narrative to expose the more evil underside of slavery. He writes to educate audiences about what really goes on at slave plantations, including more cruel and destructive behaviors. For example, he devotes his writings to a discussion about white slave owners impregnating their slaves. He does not seek to overly shock his readers. He presents a practice and explains how it touches on both slaves and slave owners. Despite the unfair treatment given to the female slaves, Douglass incorporates his own experiences with the slaveholders’ destructiveness through the memory of his meeting with Edward Covey. From the time upon his arrival, Covey beats him senseless for his so called â€Å"awkwardness†. Douglass doesn’t dwell on these instances throughout the course of his story. Douglass often returns to this theme, to depict the concept of slavery as repulsive and dirty to not only slaves, but the slaveholders as well. Douglass makes use of the stories of other slaves to make an argument about the inhumanity of slavery. After Douglass recounts Mr. Gore’s murder of Demby, he includes several similar stories, such as Mrs. Hick killing her female servant and Beal Bondly killing one of Colonel Lloyd’s elderly slaves. These additional scenes serve to support Douglass’s claims about slavery. Douglass is attempting to convince whites that the events he witnessed such as a white man killing a black man and suffering no legal consequences are the normal practice. Also incorporating the story of his aunt, and him witnessing the horrific beatings that had been laid upon her. He says,† I was so terrified and horror-stricken at the sight, that I hid myself in a close, and dared not to venture out till long after the bloody transaction was over.†(page.11). This shows yet another example of how slavery can not only be dehumanizing to the slave holders, but also affects the slaves mental state of mind as well. After escaping the plantation and moving on in his life, Frederick Douglass had begun his career as an abolitionist in 1851. Upon starting his career, he had faced his views towards the Constitution. His initial interpretation crossed that of another abolitionist, William Lloyd Garrison. Both the individuals had agreed on many concepts. Both men started off by agreeing with the vision that the U.S Constitution was a pro-slavery document. When looking into the basis of the Constitution, the preamble states the basic rights of the everyday common citizen—- Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness. Douglass and Garrison however looked upon it in a different style. They had seen this document as a â€Å"covenant denounce and an agreement with hell† which the two individuals had said it compromised with the â€Å"tyranny of the slaveholder.† One can interpret this to meaning that the Constitution protected the slave holders. Douglass makes the comparison in which that the slaveholders used the Constitution as barrier for their beliefs. The two individuals find Supreme Court cases to back up their cause. The case in which is known as the Dred Scott decision proclaimed that the right of slave owners to got maintain their possession of their slaves, even if they were illegal. This yet again, was one of the key reasons as to why many abolitionists such as Douglass and Garrison were to believe that the U.S Constitution was nothing other than a Pro-Slavery document. Douglass had broken off to develop his own separate views over time. To Douglass’s usage, he had conjured a number of speeches which he had advocated the views of slavery to the white population by using his own personal experiences to create his strong message. In one of his well-known speeches, â€Å"What, To The Slave, Is The Fourth Of July† he confides in his audience how the Constitution is indeed a glorious document. But the key question that is asked in the course of the speech is simply, how do the slaves benefit from the document? The simple answer to that question was they didn’t.